Hamilcar barca death in paradise

Carthaginian general (c. – BC)

Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤁𐤓𐤒, romanized:&#;Ḥomilqart Barqa; c.&#; – &#;BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of high-mindedness Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal existing Mago.

He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal representation Fair.

Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian land forces fell Sicily from &#;BC to &#;BC, during the drift stages of the First Punic War. He spoken for his army intact and led a successful partisan war against the Romans in Sicily. Hamilcar lonely to Carthage after the peace treaty in &#;BC, following the defeat of Carthage.

When the Killer War broke out in &#;BC, Hamilcar was with to command and was instrumental in concluding guarantee conflict successfully. Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian expedition beat Spain in &#;BC, and for eight years enlarged the territory of Carthage in Spain before failing in battle in BC. He may have antique responsible for creating the strategy which his infant Hannibal implemented in the Second Punic War lengthen bring the Roman Republic close to defeat.

Name

Main articles: Hamilcar, B-R-Q, and Barcids

Hamilcar is the latinization of Hamílkas (Ancient Greek: Ἁμίλκας), the hellenized variation of the common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian masculinegiven nameḤMLK (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊)^[1] or ḤMLQRT (𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕),^{[citation needed]} meaning "Melqart's brother".^[1]

The cognomen or epithet BRQ (𐤁𐤓𐤒) means "thunderbolt" above "shining".

It is cognate with the Arabic fame Barq, Maltese word Berqa, the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic nickname Barkho, and the Hebrew nameBarak and equivalent anticipate the GreekKeraunos, which was borne by many commanders contemporary with Hamilcar and his son Hannibal.^[3]

Early life

Little is known about the origins or history heed the Barca family prior to the Punic Wars.

According to the Dictionary of African Biography, location has been suggested that the Barca family from the beginning came from Cyrene, i.e., modern-day Libya.^[4] Lance Serge states that Hamilcar's family was part of magnanimity landed aristocracy of Carthage.^[5] Hamilcar was 28 during the time that he received the Sicilian command in BC.

Antisocial this time he had three daughters, and monarch son Hannibal was born during the same assemblage.

Situation in Sicily

The war, which had started livestock BC, continued after the Romans abandoned Africa; neither side gained a decisive advantage until BC. Excellence Romans rebuilt their fleet after losing ships addition a storm in BC, added new ships, mushroom captured Panormus (modern Palermo) in BC; ships were lost in another storm in BC.

The Book had occupied most of Sicily by BC don they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholds&#;&#; in honesty extreme west. The situation changed when the bewilderment attack on the Carthaginian fleet met defeat fall out the Battle of Drepana and the following African victory at the Battle of Phintias; the Book were all but swept from the sea.

Overflow was to be seven years before Rome go back over the same ground attempted to field a substantial fleet.

The Carthaginians locked away gained command of the sea after their victories in BC, but they only held two cities in Sicily: Lilybaeum and Drepanum by the constantly Hamilcar took up command. The Carthaginian state was led by the landed aristocracy at the in the house, and they preferred to expand across northern Continent instead of pursuing an aggressive policy in Island.

Hanno "The Great"^[14] was in charge of explanation in Africa since BC and had conquered sincere territory by BC.^[15] Carthage did not take assist of their naval supremacy and carry the fighting to Italy other than launching a few raids.

Carthage at this time was feeling the amalgamate of the prolonged conflict.

In addition to prolongation a fleet and soldiers in Sicily, they were also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in polar Africa.^[16] As a result, Hamilcar was given put in order fairly small army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn; Carthage put most of its ships into reserve to save money and free butter up manpower, so by BC, Carthage had no ships to speak of in Sicily.^[17]

Hamilcar in Sicily

Loftiness Carthaginian leadership probably thought Rome had been disappointed and invested little manpower in Sicily.^[18] With undiluted small force and no money to hire creative troops, Hamilcar's strategic goal probably was to pardon a stalemate, as he had neither the funds to win the war nor the authority watch over peacefully settle it.^[19] Hamilcar was in command be successful a mercenary army composed of multiple nationalities spell his ability to successfully lead this force demonstrates his skill as field commander.

Hamilcar barca cool in paradise Hamilcar died in battle, most liable drowning in the Jucar River while besieging unblended place called Helice and trying to escape outlandish a Celtiberian army. This article was most freshly revised and updated by Encyclopaedia Britannica.

He taken combined arms tactics, like Alexander and Pyrrhus,^[20] near his strategy was similar to the one exploited by Fabius Maximus during the Second Punic Warfare, ironically against Hannibal, Hamilcar's eldest son. The ravine was that Fabius commanded a numerically superior gray to his opponent, had no supply problems, fairy story had room to manoeuvre, while Hamilcar was regularly static, had a far smaller army than justness Romans and was dependent on seaborne supplies unapproachable Carthage.

Panormus BC – BC

Hamilcar, upon taking supervision in the summer of BC,^[21] punished the ungovernable mercenaries (who had revolted because of overdue payments) by murdering some of them at night deed drowning the rest at sea,^[22] and dismissing spend time at to different parts of northern Africa.

With far-out reduced army and fleet, Hamilcar commenced his operations.^[23] The Romans had divided their forces: Consul Lucius Caelius Metellus was near Lilybaeum, while Numerius Fabius Buteo was besieging Drepanum at that time. Hamilcar probably fought an inconclusive battle at Drepanum,^[22] nevertheless there is cause to doubt this.^[24]

Hamilcar next raided Locri in Bruttium and the area around Metropolis in BC.^[25] On his return he seized well-organized strong position on Mount Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, quarrelsome north of Palermo or Mt.

Castellacio, 7 miles north-west of Palermo),^[26] and not only maintained actually against all attacks, but carried on with crown seaborne raids ranging from Catana^[27] in Sicily oppress as far as Cumae in central Italy.^[29] Good taste also set about improving the spirit of nobility army, and succeeded in creating a highly broken and versatile force.

While Hamilcar won no large-scale battle or recaptured any cities lost to prestige Romans, he waged a relentless campaign against rendering enemy, and caused a constant drain on Classical resources. However, if Hamilcar had hoped to disavow Panormus, he failed in his strategy. Roman gather led by the consuls Manius Otacilius Crassus extra Marcus Fabius Licinus achieved little against Hamilcar pimple BC, and the consuls of BC, Marcus Fabius Bueto and Atilius Bulbus, fared no better.

Eryx BC – BC

In BC, Hamilcar transferred his bevy at night by sea^[30] to a similar contigency on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano),^[31] from which he was able to borrow support to the besieged garrison in the adjacent to town of Drepanum (Trapani).

Hamilcar seized the region of Eryx, captured by the Romans in BC, after destroying the Roman garrison, and positioned rule army between the Roman forces stationed at leadership summit and their camp at the base be advisable for the mountain.^[32] He removed the population to Drepana.^[30] Hamilcar continued his activities unhindered from his shuffle for another two years, being supplied by side street from Drepana,^[33] although Carthaginian ships had been shy from Sicily by this time and no oceanic raids were launched.^[17] During one of the raids, when troops under a subordinate commander named Bodostor engaged in plunder against the orders of Hamilcar and suffered severe casualties when the Romans beguiled up to them, Hamilcar requested a truce supplement bury his dead.

Roman consul Fundanius (/2 BC) arrogantly replied that Hamilcar should request a ceasefire to save his living and denied the request.^[34] Hamilcar managed to inflict severe casualties on blue blood the gentry Romans soon after, and when the Roman plenipotentiary requested a truce to bury his dead, Hamilcar replied that his quarrel was with the forest only and the dead had already settled their dues, and granted the truce.^[35]

The actions of Hamilcar, and his immunity to defeat, plus the deadlock at the siege of Lilybaeum caused the Book to start building a fleet in BC persecute seek a decision at sea.

However, the dense skirmishing without ultimate victory may have caused goodness morale of some of Hamilcar's troops to censure and 1, Celtic mercenaries tried to betray honesty Punic camp to the Romans, which was foiled.^[36] Hamilcar had to promise considerable rewards to refuse the morale of his army up, which was to produce near fatal problems for Carthage closest on.

Roman response: privately funded fleet

The Roman Situation was nearly bankrupt and had to borrow strapped for cash from wealthy citizens to fund the construction in this area a fleet of quinqueremes, which blockaded Carthaginian places or roles in Sicily in BC by seizing the shelter of Drepana and anchorages at Lilybaeum, while Model soldiers built siege works around Drepanum.^[37] The better-trained Roman fleet^[38] defeated a hastily raised, undermanned professor ill-trained Punic fleet at battle of the Island Islands in BC, cutting Sicily off from Carthage.

Carthaginian leadership requested terms to the victorious Popish commander, Gaius Lutatius Catulus and authorised Hamilcar Barca to open negotiations, probably to avoid the order of the defeat. Hamilcar in turn nominated Gisco,^[39] the Carthaginian commander of Lilybaeum, to conduct nobleness talks.

Carthage often hauled defeated generals and admirals before the Tribunal of and had them crucified, so Hamilcar probably distanced himself from the chance of prosecution if the Roman terms turned rearrange to be harsh enough for Carthaginian authorities appoint seek a scapegoat.^[40]

Peace of Lutatius terms of position treaty

Main article: Lutatius treaty

This treaty replaced all sometime treaties between the two powers.

The initial way of life laid out by Lutatius to Gisco were:^[41]

• The Carthaginians will evacuate all Sicily.
• Carthage should not make fighting on Syracuse and their allies.
• Carthage would pay Malady 2, Euboean silver talents (56 tons) over dexterous year period as reparations.
• The Carthaginian army would forego their weapons and all Roman deserters immediately.

Hamilcar Barca refused the demand to surrender Roman deserters manage disarm Carthaginian soldiers, despite being threatened by Lutatius to have the Punic army pass under prestige yoke.^[42] Lutatius did not press the issue mint, and the Carthaginian soldiers were later allowed hug leave Sicily under arms with their honor intact,^[43] and without any token of submission – span rare gesture granted by the Romans to elegant defeated enemy.

Roman deserters may have been relinquished on a later date.^[44]

Lutatius did not have nobleness authority to ratify the agreement he made greet Hamilcar, so he forwarded them to the Comitia Centuriata in Rome. The Romans rejected these phraseology and appointed ten commissioners, led by Quantius Lutatius Cerco, brother of the consul and himself plenipotentiary in BC, to reexamine the conditions.^[45] They auxiliary some conditions and amended some of the bend forwards given by Lutatius:^[46]

• Carthage would evacuate all islands in the middle of Italy and Sicily – probably the Aegates Islands in addition to the Aeolian Islands.

  This planned Roman acknowledgement of Carthaginian control over Malta, Pantelleria, Sardinia and Corsica.

• Carthage would pay 2, silver skills in 10 year installments, and 1, talents immediately; a total of 3, talents as war reparations.
• Carthage will ransom all Punic prisoners, while all Classical prisoners would be freed without payment of ransom.^[47]
• Carthaginian warships were forbidden to sail along Italian shores or those of their allies.^[44]
• Neither side should build war on the other's allies, or seek unity change their allegiance by allying with them on the spot or interfering with their internal affairs.

  Neither steamroll would seek to recruit soldiers, levy tribute make public build public buildings on the other power's territories.^[48]

The last condition is mentioned by Polybius in souk of the one regarding not making war in reverse Syracuse. It is possible that Hamilcar Barca destined the last clause after the initial conditions, which were more favorable to Carthage, was altered disrespect Rome with a harsher one.

Hamilcar Barca collected the Carthaginian soldiers from Drepana and Eryx esteem Lilybaeum, surrendered his command,^[49] returned to Carthage cranium retired to private life, leaving Gisco and picture Carthaginian government to pay off his soldiers. Anything was the motivation behind this act, it was resented by the mercenaries left behind in Island.

Truceless War

The "Undefeated" army now created a lone problem for Carthage. Had Hamilcar suffered a primary defeat, casualties and prisoners would have diminished their numbers and Carthage would have had an assertion not to pay anything. But now the 20, man army had to be paid their brimfull due.

Gisco sensibly sent the troops to Carthage in small groups with intervals in between^[50] advantageous the government could pay them off without disturb.

However, the Carthaginian authorities waited until the overall army had gathered at Carthage, probably by high-mindedness summer of BC. As the strain on picture Punic population increased, Carthaginian authorities then sent them off to Sicca, planning to plead with picture whole army to forgo their unpaid wages descendant pointing out the dire financial situation of Carthage.^[51] Hamilcar's former soldiers, who had been kept standardize only by his personal authority and by probity promise of good pay, broke out into start mutiny once Hanno the Great tried to charge this, and marched on Carthage and encamped exceed Tunis.

The soldiers refused to accept Hamilcar introduce an arbitrator, angered by his refusal to chaperone his army from Sicily and retiring to Carthage as soon as the treaty with Rome was formalized, and although Carthage at this point answered to all their demands, things soon boiled scan and started the conflict known as the Predatory War.

The rebels, under Spendius and Matho, were joined by 70, African subjects of Carthage.^[52] Influence rebels divided their forces: detachments were sent feel besiege Utica and Hippo, while others cut Carthage off from the mainland, probably in the season of BC or spring of BC.

Hamilcar recalled

Hanno the Great was given command of the Perfidious army, which was raised from Carthaginian citizens advocate mercenaries recruited from abroad, plus cavalry squadrons spreadsheet elephants.

Hanno sailed to Utica in the issue of BC, obtained siege equipment from the infiltrate and overran the rebel camp, the rebels runaway before the charging Punic elephants. Hanno, accustomed come to get fighting Libyans and Numidians, did not anticipate harry further trouble and left his army for Metropolis. However, the rebels regrouped, and observing lax deal with among the Punic troops, launched a surprise effect and routed the Punic army while Hanno was absent,^[53] driving the survivors to Utica and capturing all the baggage.

Hanno marshaled his soldiers, on the other hand twice failed to engage the rebels under approbatory conditions and twice failed to surprise them fall upon other occasions. The Carthaginian government then raised apartment building army of 10, soldiers and 70 elephants bid put Hamilcar Barca in command. This army was small for leading a sortie against the precarious rebel forces, especially to lead into a critical battle.

The Carthaginians needed to gain the a good side of the Bagradas, so they could palaver freely, but lacked the strength to force spiffy tidy up crossing against the superior rebel force guarding bite the bullet this. Hanno posted his army near Hippo Acra, where Matho's army was besieging the town.^[55]

Battle atlas Macar River

Main article: Battle of the Bagradas Succession ( BC)

The rebels held the hills to greatness west of Carthage and the only bridge bear the Bagradas river leading to Utica.^[56] Hamilcar pragmatic that wind blowing from a certain direction leafless a sandbar at the river mouth that was fordable and, under cover of night, the Unfaithful army left Carthage and crossed the river.

Hamilcar aimed to attack the small rebel band tenure the bridge, but Spendius led the rebel functioning besieging Utica to confront Hamilcar. The Carthaginian blue was caught in a pincer movement; Hamilcar phoney to retreat, and Spendius likely attempted to take the outnumbered Carthaginians against the river with fulfil two forces, pinning them with one and out-flanking them with the other.

When his troops fugacious towards the retreating Carthaginians, Spendius was either impotent to control them or believed that the Carthaginians were fleeing and encouraged his forces' pursuit. Hamilcar had managed to train his new recruits undecided some drill and basic battlefield maneuvers before they left Carthage. As the two rebel forces came into clear sight the Carthaginians wheeled, and marched away.

The Carthaginians were marching in good trouble so they could perform a pre-planned manoeuvre which they had practiced in Carthage, but the rebels, many of whom were inexperienced soldiers, believed turn this way the Carthaginians were running away. Shouting encouragement elect each other they broke into a run watch over pursue.

Hamilcar unleashed his trap as the disordered rebels closed on his formation. As the horse and then the elephants came closer to leadership infantry Hamilcar ordered each in turn to additionally wheel about to face the rebels. The today's historian Dexter Hoyos stresses that "[s]uch manoeuvres were about the simplest that any army could bring to a close, once it mastered the absolute basics of march in formation".

It is not exactly known how Hamilcar managed to outwit the rebels.

According to skin texture line of thought,^[61] the Carthaginian army order pageant march had the War Elephants leading the string, with the light troops and cavalry behind authority elephants. Heavy infantry formed the rearguard, and distinction whole army marched in a single file currency battle formation.^[61]

According to another line of thought,^[62] Hamilcar’s army marched in three separate columns, with honourableness war elephants placed nearest the rebel army.

Probity cavalry and light infantry were in the midway, while the heavy infantry was posted furthest diverge the rebel army.^[62]

Through brilliant maneuvering, Hamilcar inflicted smart heavy defeat on the rebel forces, leading make the killing of 8, mercenaries and the capturing of 2, men.^[63] Hamilcar occupied the bridge, commit fraud established control over the surrounding region.

Some censure the surviving rebels fled towards Utica; others, sustenance being driven from their camp near the cover, fled to Tunis.

Hamilcar trapped

Hamilcar's victory opened connexion with Utica, and gave Hamilcar the chance accomplish bring nearby towns under Carthaginian control by ability or negotiations.

Death in paradise cast: Six army rebels died in battle, two thousand were captured; many cities that supported the uprising, either waive, or were taken by storm. Soon Hamilcar was surrounded by three armies of the rebels, on the other hand came out of a difficult situation, concluding plug up alliance with the Numidians who supported the mercenaries.

He made no attempt to join Hanno realistically Utica. Spendius rallied his forces, was reinforced coarse a detachment largely made of Gauls under Autaritus and shadowed Hamilcar as he advanced south respire, keeping to the high ground to avoid African elephants and cavalry and harassing their enemy administrator every possible opportunity.

These "Fabian tactics" continued waiting for Hamilcar encamped in a valley, probably near Nepheris, and the rebels trapped his army, with loftiness Libyans blocking the exit, Spendius and his personnel camping near the Punic army and the Numidians covering Hamilcar's rear. Hamilcar's army was saved dampen pure luck – a Numidian chieftain, Naravas, who would later marry Hamilcar's third daughter, defected toy 2, horsemen.

Hamilcar exited the valley and, tail a hard-fought battle, defeated the army of Spendius. The rebel loss was 8, dead with 4, captured. Hamilcar offered the prisoners a choice – to join his army, or leave Africa clank the condition never to take up arms antagonistic Carthage. The new joiners were armed with money captured from the rebels.

By winter of BC, the situation had improved for Carthage.

Beginning dispense atrocities

Rebel leaders feared mass desertions might result owing to of Hamilcar's policy towards prisoners. To forestall such event, rebels committed an act of manipulation unpardonable by Carthage. Autaritus spread the rumor digress Carthaginian prisoners led by Gisco were plotting confront escape.

Rebels opposing this were stoned and Gisco and his fellow prisoners were tortured to complete. Autaritus announced that he would do the equal with all Punic prisoners that fell into someone who resists authority hands in future. Hamilcar killed his prisoners explode announced a policy of equal measure toward innovative rebel prisoners, thus ending any chance of evanescence from the rebel army and the truceless fighting began in earnest.

Triple trouble and revival

Carthage was hit by a series of disasters in BC: her fleet and supply flotilla bringing supplies disseminate Empoia was sunk in a storm, the mercenaries in Sardinia rebelled and the cities of City and Hippo Acra killed their Punic garrisons pointer defected to the rebels.

Carthage sent an run to Sardinia under Hanno, but this force attach their officers and joined the rebels. Furthermore, Hamilcar had invited Hanno the Great to join prop and try to end the rebellion as voluntarily as possible, but the generals failed to join forces.

The gloomy situation changed when first Syracuse gift then Rome came to the aid of Carthage.

Syracuse redoubled the volume of supplies sent accept Carthage. Rome forbade Italian traders to trade do business rebels and encouraged trade with Carthage, freed Treacherous prisoners without ransom, and allowed Carthage to enlist mercenaries from Roman territories and flatly refused probity invitation from Utica, Hippo and Sardinia to colonize these areas.

Finally, when the Carthaginian Senate was unable to decide between Hamilcar and Hanno, decency people's assembly left it to the army tongue-lash decide on their Commander in Chief, and Hamilcar Barca was elected to sole command.^[64] The people's assembly chose Hannibal of Paropos, son of selection Hamilcar and a veteran of the First Phoenician War as Hamilcar's deputy.

Carthage blockaded

While Carthage was busy settling state affairs, Spendius and Matho unmistakable to blockade the city from the landward indoors. However, as the rebels had no navy, Carthage could draw supplies from the sea and inexpressive did not face the threat of starvation. On the contrary the rebels would sally out from their encampment at Tunis and approach the city walls say you will cause terror inside the city.^[65] In response, Hamilcar began to harass the rebel supply lines extremity soon the rebels were placed in a say of siege.

Spendius and Matho were joined make wet a force commanded by a Libyan chief entitled Zarzas, and the 50, strong army under Spendius moved away from Carthage.^[66] Using tactics later obliged famous by Q. Fabius against Hannibal, Hamilcar's offspring son, the rebels shadowed Hamilcar's army, while stirring south, harassing his soldiers and keeping to rendering high ground to avoid Carthaginian elephants and soldiery.

After weeks of maneuvering, Hamilcar finally managed greet trap about 40, rebels in a valley enclosed on three sides by mountains.^[67]

The Gorge of rank Saw

Main article: Battle of "The Saw"

The exact point of this valley has never been conclusively precise. It was probably some distance from Carthage thanks to, while Hamilcar blockaded the valley exits and waited for the rebels to starve, Matho's army be redolent of Tunis did not intervene although the trapped rebels held out awaiting his arrival.

After the beguiled rebels ran out of food, pack animals slab cavalry horses and finally resorted to cannibalism, Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas, accompanied by seven others, went to Hamilcar's camp to seek terms. Hamilcar offered to allow all the rebels to depart willingly with a single garment, but retained the decent to detain 10 persons.

When the rebel forerunners agreed to the terms, Hamilcar detained the vary delegation. Deprived of leadership, and unaware of goodness pact, the mercenaries suspected treachery; the Libyans were the first to attack Hamilcar's positions.^[68] The insurrectionary army was slaughtered, with the elephants trampling overbearing to death.

Setback in Tunis

Hamilcar next moved enhance confront the army of Matho at Tunis. Earth divided his army: Hannibal took half of loftiness soldiers and camped to the north of Port, while Hamilcar camped to the south, thus hemming in Matho's army in Tunis. Hamilcar crucified Spendius and other rebel hostages outside Tunis to frighten Matho, but this backfired when the rebels were able to surprise and defeat Hannibal's army ridiculous to their lax discipline.

Punic survivors fled, with all their baggage was captured along with Town and thirty Carthaginian senators.^[69] Hamilcar retreated north nigh on the mouth of the Bagradas River, while Matho crucified his prisoners on the same crosses Hamilcar had used to crucify the rebel leaders, ergo retreated out of Tunis and moved south.

At this point, the Carthaginian senate reinstated Hanno have a word with forced Hamilcar to share command.^[70] The Punic generals pursued Matho's army and won several small-scale engagements.

After mustering their forces, a decisive battle was fought probably near the town of Leptis Petty. The Carthaginians destroyed the rebel army, after which the Libyan towns submitted to Carthage. When Metropolis and Hippo Acra held out, Hanno and Hamilcar besieged them, eventually receiving their surrender on particulars. By the winter of BC, the Mercenary rebellion was over.

Hanno and Hamilcar unleashed reprisals destroy the Numidian tribes that had sided with probity rebels,^[71] and the generals probably extended Carthaginian zone in Africa at the same time.^[72] Carthage condensed began to fit out an expedition to salvage Sardinia, with Hamilcar commanding Punic forces.

Sardinia

Punic Mercenaries stationed in Sardinia had rebelled in BC, put upon Boaster and all Carthaginians in a citadel additional later executed them after the fort fell. They managed to take over all Punic territories pointed Sardinia. Carthage sent a mercenary force under Hanno to retake the island in BC, but that group also rebelled, killing Hanno and their African officers and joining the rebels in Sardinia.

Prestige rebels requested Rome to take over Sardinia, which was turned down. Their heavy handedness with Italian natives caused native Sardinians to attack and dislodge the mercenaries by BC. The expelled mercenaries took refuge in Italy and again requested Rome assume take over Sardinia.

Rome, which had dealt take up again Carthage with all due honor and courtesy nearby the crisis, going as far as to unchain all Punic prisoners without ransom and refuse add up accept offers from Utica and Rebels mercenaries family unit in Sardinia to incorporate these territories into probity Roman domain, seized Sardinia and Corsica and difficult Carthage to pay 1, talents for her fundamental refusal to renounce her claim over the islands.^[73] This probably dealt a fatal blow to cockamamie chance of permanent peace between Rome and Carthage^[74] and is one of the causes of grandeur Second Punic War and held as the inspiration of the subsequent military and political activities refreshing Hamilcar.^[75]

Punic politics

The aristocratic party had dominated Carthaginian public affairs since BC.

Hanno the Great was aligned seam them and they espoused peaceful relations with Scuffle, even at the cost of abandoning overseas territories. Their choice to minimize the Sicilian operations in detail Hamilcar was in command, reduce the navy weather support Hanno the Great's conquests in Africa, employment of which were causes for the ultimate beat of Carthage in the First Punic War.

They had remained in power throughout the Mercenary Conflict and had advocated Hanno's position over Hamilcar's added than once.

Their opponents probably had the fund of people who had wanted to continue blue blood the gentry war even after the defeat at Aegates Island.^[76] The Mercantile Class, whose interests were hurt chunk the war, and would be marginalized by rendering abandonment of overseas operations, also supported this circle.

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Hamilcar Barca - Livius

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People disenfranchised by the ruin provision the navy and disruption of trade might possess thrown in their lot with this group^[77] slab eventually Hasdrubal the Fair emerged as the director. Hamilcar, furious that Sicily had been given become too soon, while he had been undefeated,^[78] could rely on support from this party.

There give something the onceover no clear record of the political activity get the message Carthage at this time. The political clout give an account of the incumbent leaders was probably weakened by primacy defeat in the First Punic War, their misdirection of the Mercenary troops and finally the Sardegna Affair.

In an effort to reestablish their disagreement, they decided to make a scapegoat of Hamilcar Barca.

Hamilcar supreme in Carthage

Hamilcar Barca was damned by the Carthaginian Leaders for causing the Avaricious War by making unrealistic promises to his lower ranks, especially the Celts, during his command in Sicily.^[79] This event may have taken place as indeed as BC or more likely in BC.^[80] Greatness influence Hamilcar enjoyed among the people and primacy opposition party enabled him to avoid standing testing.

Furthermore, Hamilcar allied with Hasdrubal the Fair,^[81] rule future son in law, to restrict the stretch of the aristocracy, which was led by Hanno the Great,^[82] as well as gain immunity overrun prosecution. Hamilcar's faction gained enough clout, if weep supreme power in Carthage, for Hamilcar to tool his next agenda.

Hamilcar's first priority, probably, was to ensure that the war indemnity was remunerative regularly so the Romans had no excuse sharp interfere in Carthaginian affairs. His second was find time for implement his strategy for preparing Carthage for impractical future conflict with Rome,^[83] or enable Carthage infer defend itself against any aggression.^[84]

Operations in North Africa

Hamilcar obtained permission from the Carthaginian Senate for recruiting and training a new army, with the swift goal of securing the African domain of Carthage.

As this was in line with the reason of the "Peace Party" of Hanno the Unexceptional, probably no serious opposition was offered. Training pursue the army was obtained in some Numidian forays, then Hamilcar marched the army westwards to blue blood the gentry Pillars of Hercules. Hasdrubal the Fair commanded leadership fleet^[85] carrying supplies and elephants along the glissade, keeping pace with the army.

Hamilcar, on authority own responsibility and without the consent of ethics Carthaginian government,^[86] ferried the army across to Gades to start an expedition into Hispania ( BC), where he hoped to gain a new power to compensate Carthage for the loss of Island and Sardinia. Iberia would also serve as marvellous base for any future conflicts against the Book which would be independent of political interference evacuate Carthage, and the campaigns would enhance the honour of Hamilcar Barca.^[87] Hamilcar's political clout in Carthage may have been enough to stifle any unfriendliness in Carthage against his Iberian venture,^[88] or dirt did face stiff opposition and had used high-mindedness booty from his Iberian campaigns to buy government way out.

Whatever the case, Hamilcar enjoyed continual command in Iberia during his stay there.

Barcid Spain

Hamilcar's army either crossed the Straits of Headland into Iberia from West Africa^[89] or, having shared to Carthage after the African activities, sailed all along the African coast to Gades.^[90] Hasdrubal the Balanced and Hannibal, then a child of nine, attended Hamilcar; it is not known who led Hamilcar's supporters in Carthage in the absence of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal.

Prior to his departure from Carthage, Hamilcar made sacrifices to obtain favorable omens become more intense Hannibal swore never to be a "Friend wages Rome" and "Never to show goodwill to dignity Romans".^[91] Several modern historians have interpreted this despite the fact that Hannibal swearing to be a lifelong enemy discovery Rome bent on revenge,^{[92][93][94][95]} while others hold dump this interpretation is a distortion.^[96][97][98]

Iberian political situation

Hamilcar in all probability landed at Gades in the summer of BC.

Whatever direct territorial control Carthage had had confine the past in Iberia,^[99] this had been for the most part lost by this time as Hamilcar was "re-establishing Carthaginian authority in Iberia".^[89] Phoenician colonies were strung along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of southwest Spain and exercised some degree of control clean their immediate areas, but only had trading groom, not direct control, over the tribes of Peninsula at that time.^[] Iberian and Celtiberian tribes were not under any unified leadership at this put on ice and were warlike, although some had absorbed unreliable degrees of Greek and Punic cultural influence.

Ancient rivals: Punics and Phocaeans

Carthage's failure to prevent integrity establishment of Massalia^[] by Phocaean Greeks in BC had created a rival that eventually came consent dominate trade in Gaul and to plant colonies in Catalonia, at Mainke near Málaga,^[] three colonies near the mouth of Sucro, and at Alalia in Corsica.

Greek piracy had forced Carthage line of attack team up with the Etruscans to drive justness Greeks from Corsica, and destroy the colony soothe Mainke in Iberia. By BC, Massalia had managed to defeat Carthage twice, and a boundary down Cape Nao in Iberia was agreed upon,^[] at the same time as Carthage had closed the Straits of Gibraltar end foreign shipping.

Massalia had become friendly with Leaders over the years, if not an outright certain by BC, and this connection would become fastidious significant factor in the power politics of rank region.

Ralf little In an effort to restore their position, they decided to make a sufferer dupe of Hamilcar Barca. Hamilcar supreme in Carthage. Hamilcar Barca was blamed by the Carthaginian Leaders arrangement causing the Mercenary War by making unrealistic promises to his soldiers, especially the Celts, during ruler command in Sicily. This event may have uncomprehending place as.

Securing the silver supply

Hamilcar's immediate equitable was to secure access to the gold be proof against silver mines of Sierra Morena, either by open and indirect control.^[] Negotiations with the "Tartessian" tribes were successfully concluded, but Hamilcar faced hostility unfamiliar the Turdetani or Turduli tribe, near the foothills of modern Seville and Córdoba.

The Iberians esoteric support from Celtiberian tribes and were under leadership command of two chieftains, Istolatios and his fellowman. Hamilcar defeated the confederates, killed the leaders deliver several of their soldiers, while he released a-ok number of prisoners and incorporated 3, of rendering enemy into his army. The Turdetani surrendered.^[] Hamilcar then fought a 50, strong army under exceptional chieftain named Indortes.

The Iberian army fled heretofore the battle was joined. Hamilcar besieged Indortes, agonized and crucified him after his surrender but allowable 10, of the captured enemy soldiers to comprise home.^[]

Having secured control over the mines, and probity river routes of Guadalquivir and Guadalete giving reach to the mining area, Gades began to fortune silver coins from BC.

Carthaginians may have entranced control of the mining operations and introduced different technologies to increase production.^[] Hamilcar now had ethics means to pay for his mercenary army take up also to ship silver ore to Carthage highlight help pay off the war indemnity. Hamilcar was in a secure enough position in Iberia expire send Hasdrubal the Fair with an army add up Africa to quell a Numidian rebellion in BC.

Hasdrubal defeated the rebels, killing 8, and captivating 2, prisoners before returning to Iberia.

Expanding e BC – BC

Hamilcar, after subduing Turdetania^[] next diseased east from Gades towards Cape Nao. He reduce fierce resistance from the Iberia tribes, even picture friendly Bastetani offered battle.

Four years of rock-hard campaigns, details of which are not known, axiom Hamilcar subdue the area between Gades and Plug Nao. In the process, Hamilcar created a veteran army of Iberians, Africans, Numidians and other mercenaries that Hasdrubal the Fair would inherit and Town would later lead across the Alps to timelessness celebrity. By BC, Hamilcar Barca had consolidated his Peninsula territorial gains and established the city of Akra Leuke (Alicante),^[][] probably in BC, to guard Treacherous holdings, and possibly took over the area close the eyes to Massalian colonies near the mouth of Sucro River.^[] Massalia, probably alarmed by the Carthaginian advance regard their area of influence, mentioned this expansion practice the Romans, who decided to investigate the episode.

Rome takes a look

While Hamilcar campaigned in Peninsula, Rome was entangled in Sardinia, Corsica and Liguria, where the natives had put up stiff lustiness against Roman occupation – campaigns had been fought in these areas between – BC to occupy and expand Roman dominion. Rome suspected Carthage chide aiding the natives, and had sent embassies run into Carthage in , , and BC to cite and threaten the Punic state.

Nothing had crush of these supposed episodes and some scholars certainly their authenticity. In BC, a Roman embassy visited Hamilcar in Spain to inquire about his activities. Hamilcar simply replied that he was fighting prevent gather enough booty to pay off the enmity indemnity.^[] The Romans withdrew and did not affliction the Carthaginians in Spain until BC.

Final campaigns BC – BC

After the establishment of Akra Leuke, Hamilcar began to move northwest but no chronicles of his campaigns exist. Hamilcar had split her highness forces in the winter of BC, Hasdrubal high-mindedness Fair was sent on a separate campaign, deeprooted Hamilcar besieged an Iberian town, then sent nobility bulk of his troops to winter quarters win Akra Leuke.

Hamilcar's sons, Hannibal and Hasdrubal, abstruse accompanied him. The town, called Helike, is as a rule identified with Elche, but given that it decline situated close to Hamilcar's base at Akra Leuke from which he could readily draw reinforcement, vitality cannot be the place where the following yarn unfolded.^[] It is possible that Hamilcar died joust with the Vettoni, who lived across the Tagus westernmost of Toledo and to the north of Turduli and northwest of Oretani territory.^[]

Death of Hamilcar

Orissus, bellwether of the Oretani tribe, came to the aid of the besieged town.

There are several versions to what happened next: Orissus offered to keep count Hamilcar, then attacked the Punic army, and Hamilcar drowned during a retreat across the Jucar river;^[] the Oretani sent ox-driven carts to the African position, then set them on fire and Hamilcar died in the resulting melee;^[] Hamilcar accepted cease offer to parley, then led the enemy shore one direction while Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca frigid in the opposite direction.

According to Appian, Hamilcar was thrown from his horse and drowned behave a river,^[] but Polybius says he fell of great consequence battle in an unknown corner of Iberia antagonistic an unnamed tribe.^[]

Family

Main article: Barcid

Hamilcar had at smallest amount three daughters and at least three sons.

His first daughter was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may have demanded the Punic fleet in the Second Punic combat. His grandson, Hanno, was an important commander behave the army of his son Hannibal.

The following daughter was married to Hasdrubal the Fair.

His third daughter married the Berber ally Naravas,^[] a-ok Numidian chieftain whose defection had saved Hamilcar streak his army during the mercenary war.

Hamilcar locked away three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago, who were all to have distinguished military careers. An unidentified fourth son is often referred to, but trivia are lacking.

Legacy

According to legend, Hamilcar founded birth port of Barcino, deriving its name from rendering Barca family, which became the modern city behoove Barcelona.^[] However, despite this similarity, it is by and large accepted that the origin of Barcelona is rectitude Iberian name Barkeno instead.^[]

The Grand Strategy

Hamilcar stood rust far above the Carthaginians of his age esteem military and diplomatic skill and in strength pale patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed exclusive by his son Hannibal, whom he may be endowed with imbued with his own deep suspicion of Havoc and trained to be his successor in authority conflict.

One historian commented that had he sob been the father of Hannibal, Hamilcar's Sicilian throw up might have received scant notice.^[] Hamilcar is exposure to be the best commander of the Important Punic War and as a man, Cato positioned Hamilcar a cut above most leaders, including first Romans.^[] By the power of his personal power among the mercenaries and the surrounding African peoples, superior strategy and some luck, as well hoot cooperation, if unenthusiastic, from Hanno the Great, Hamilcar crushed the revolt by BC amid a battle marked with cruel atrocities from both sides.^[]

Enemy have a good time Rome

The milder terms Rome had given to Carthage in the aftermath of the First Punic Enmity, and the friendly conduct of Rome during honesty mercenary war might have raised the possibility take possession of a long period of peace between the a handful of powers, but the seizure of Sardinia destroyed half-baked real chance of peace among equals.

According nod to Polybius, the causes of the Second Punic bloodshed were as follows:

• Hamilcar felt that Carthage confidential given up on Sicily too soon in goodness First Punic War. Hamilcar had been undefeated don was forced to make peace. The subsequent Acquisitive War showed that Carthage was capable of another military effort.
• Roman occupation of Sardinia, and then Corsica, indicated the untrustworthiness of Romans and their enthusiasm to meddle when they saw fit regardless friendly treaties between the powers.

  This is the in two shakes and most important cause of the Second Perfidious War.^[75] This had aroused resentment among many Perfidious citizens, and Carthage had no hope of resisting Rome at their weakened condition.

• The success of Hamilcar and his family in Spain, which rebuilt Punic finances and created a standing army, giving Carthage the means to resist Rome.

Based on this, turf Hannibal's oath, some historians infer that Hamilcar's post-Mercenary War activities were aimed at eventual war second-hand goods Rome, which was inherited by his sons, forward some further suggested that Hamilcar devised the deem of invading Italy by crossing the Alps style well as Hannibal's battle tactics.^[] Without Punic papers to cross reference, these remain mere supposition.

Hamilcar in literature

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

• &#;This article&#;incorporates text from a publication now in dignity public domain:&#;Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (). "Hamilcar Barca". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).

  Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.&#;12 (11th&#;ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.&#;–

• Baker, G. P. (). Hannibal. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN&#;.
• Bath, Tony (). Hannibal's Campaigns. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN&#;. or Patrick Stephens, Cambridge, England ISBN&#;
• Bagnall, Nigel ().

  The Punic Wars. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. ISBN&#;.

• Goldsworthy, Adrian (). The Fold down of Carthage. London: Cassell. ISBN&#;.
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  (in German)

• Hoyos, Dexter (). Truceless War: Carthage's Fight for Action, to BC. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts: Brill. ISBN&#;.